This Day in History: May 16, 1975: Junko Tabei becomes the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest.

 by Tomoko Otake Taken from: http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2012/05/27/people/junko-tabei-the-first-woman-atop-the-world/#.UZTaz0pVZOI

Almost exactly 37 years ago, on the morning of May 16, 1975, then 35-year-old Junko Tabei and her Sherpa guide Ang Tshering reached the 8,763-meter South Summit of Mount Everest — their final halt before pushing on to the 8,848-meter peak itself.

 

They made just enough room in the heavy snow to sit down. But when she realized what her next challenge would be, she shuddered with shock and anger, she says.

In front of Tabei, who had already cleared numerous danger spots while also coping with the physical and mental stresses of high-altitude climbing, was an icy, knife-edge ridge forming part of the border of Nepal and China.

 

She would have to make a downward traverse of this ridge for about 14 or 15 meters — knowing that one mistake would send her plunging 5,000 meters on the northern, Chinese side or down to around 6,400 meters on the Nepalese side, where she could just see her Japanese Women’s Everest Expedition’s Camp II.

“I had no idea I would have to face that, even though I’d read all the accounts of previous expeditions,” Tabei recalled recently at her office in Tokyo. “I got so angry at the previous climbers who hadn’t warned me about that knife-edge traverse in their expedition records.”

 

But there was no turning back. With her eyes fixed on the end of the ridge, Tabei slowly and carefully crawled along sideways, gripping it with her hands as she kept her her upper body on the Chinese side while her lower body was on the Nepalese side, and she tried to get some grip by kicking her crampon points into the ice. “I had never felt that tense in my entire life,” Tabei said. “I felt all my hair standing on end.”

On that day, the Fukushima native made history in the world of mountaineering by becoming the first woman to scale Mount Everest, the highest mountain of Earth. Her feat was also heralded as a symbol of the huge strides Japanese women had made in their long struggle for equality and freedom of choice — strides exemplified in part by Tabei herself forming the Ladies Climbing Club: Japan in 1969 after graduating with a degree in English literature from Showa Women’s University, where she started climbing mountains.
“Back in 1970s Japan, it was still widely considered that men were the ones to work outside and women would stay at home,” said Tabei, who left her then 3-year-old daughter in the hands of her husband, also a mountaineer, and her relatives, when she went on that Everest expedition.

“Even women who had jobs — they were asked just to serve tea. So it was unthinkable for them to be promoted in their workplaces.”

Against such a background, Tabei says few people believed in the possibility of her going on a 15-member, all-women expedition to the Himalayas — and fewer still supported their plan (helped by Japanese media sponsorship) to scale the highest mountain in the world. “We were told we should be raising children instead,” she recalls.

 

However, the women in the group, of which Tabei was the deputy leader, never gave up, and they prepared for the Everest climb carefully and with lots of planning. She said the team decided on Everest after considering all the world’s 14 mountains (in either the Himalayas or the Karakoram range) more than 8,000 meters high — because they judged it would be a relatively easy climb beyond 8,000 meters. It also helped that they had access to the records of earlier climbers, including ones from Japan.

“There was never a question in my mind that I wanted to climb that mountain, no matter what other people said,” she said with a smile.

Times have changed since then, though. Throughout the 1970s and ’80s, the Nepalese government, which issues entry permits to Everest, restricted access to one party per route per season. But in the ’90s, that rule was eased and climbers with a variety of climbing expertise began swarming in, lured by the glory and the prestige of scaling the world’s highest mountain.

As a result, climbing Everest became a kind of leisure pursuit, with Sherpas, porters and other professional guides doing all the work for those who could pay, Tabei said. She gripes that some of those are called “Intensive Care Unit” climbers, as they get more than enough life-support from helpers, with Sherpas in front of them and behind and other expedition staff carrying their supplies, gear and oxygen tanks.

 

“Climbing Everest has become a status symbol, and even a big entertainment,” she says. “People have started competing over the speed with which they’ve made the ascent, whether they climbed to the peak by themselves, and how old they were when they made it to the top. They have boasted how long they could stay on the summit, how long they were free of oxygen tanks, or how they managed to be naked on the peak. There’s been this thinking that you have to do something to get attention.”

Tabei says she is lucky to have climbed the mountain before such stunts became the norm. In her time, mountaineers aimed for Everest simply for the challenges and joys of climbing it.

On a positive note, however, Tabei says Everest has alerted her to environmental issues. She cites as her biggest inspiration the late Sir Edmund Hillary, who was, in 1953 along with Sherpa Tenzing, the first to reach the top of Everest.

 

In an 1989 interview, New Zealander Hillary, alarmed by the severe environmental damage being done to the mountain due to the increasing number of climbers, called for a five-year moratorium on Everest expeditions. Although his plea “to give the mountain a rest” went unheeded, due in part to opposition from Nepalis fearing a sudden loss of income, Hillary remained dedicated to improving the lives of the Sherpa people, and he worked hard on building schools and hospitals in Nepal until he died in 2007 at the age of 88.

Influenced by Hillary’s environmental and philanthropic initiatives, Tabei has campaigned for sustainable mountaineering, and researched the garbage problem on Everest in graduate studies she undertook at Kyushu University. Her research included quantifying the amount of rubbish and refuse that has accumulated up there since the first expedition in 1923.

Tabei arrived at the conclusion, through questionnaires to mountaineering societies around the world and by poring over expedition records, that just at Base Camp, which is at an altitude of 5,364 meters, some 1.03 million liters of urine had been released by climbers and others as of 2000. “That is enough to fill 3,300 bathtubs,” Tabei says. “And there are villagers (at the foot of Everest) who are dependent on meltwater from there for their living.”

Tabei, who in 1992 also became the first woman in the world to reach the highest point on each of the seven continents, says her passion for mountaineering has never waned — noting that her dream now is to scale the highest mountain in every country of the world. So far she’s done that in 60 countries, which means she’s around a third of the way to her target of 196 or so. But she also enjoys visiting unique mountains.
“At New Year’s this year, I was in Ethiopia, and because I had climbed the highest mountain there a long time ago, this time I went to (613-meter) Erta Ale (in the northeast),” she said excitedly. “I saw the red-hot lava moving there up close, and I was so excited to imagine what was going on at the core of Earth.”

Now a 72-year-old mother of two grown-up children, Tabei says mountaineering will be her passion forever.
“I’ve never felt like stopping climbing — and I never will — even when I myself have seen people killed in accidents in the mountains,” she said. “Of course every time it happens it’s really shocking, but it will never stop me climbing.”

Taken from: http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2012/05/27/people/junko-tabei-the-first-woman-atop-the-world/#.UZTaz0pVZOI (16.05.2013)

This Day in History: May 15, 1940: McDonald's opens its first restaurant

 

McDonald's Corporation is the world's largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants, serving around 68 million customers daily in 119 countries.^[4][5] Headquartered in the United States, the company began in 1940 as a barbecue restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald; in 1948 they reorganized their business as a hamburger stand using production line principles. Businessman Ray Kroc joined the company as a franchise agent in 1955. He subsequently purchased the chain from the McDonald brothers and oversaw its worldwide growth.^[6]

A McDonald's restaurant is operated by either a franchisee, an affiliate, or the corporation itself. The corporation's revenues come from the rent, royalties and fees paid by the franchisees, as well as sales in company-operated restaurants. McDonald's revenues grew 27 percent over the three years ending in 2007 to $22.8 billion, and 9 percent growth in operating income to $3.9 billion.^[7]

McDonald's primarily sells hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chicken, french fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes and desserts. In response to changing consumer tastes, the company has expanded its menu to include salads, fish, wraps, smoothies and fruit.^[8]

The business began in 1940, with a restaurant opened by brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald at 1398 North E Street at West 14th Street in San Bernardino, California (at 34.1255°N 117.2946°W). Their introduction of the "Speedee Service System" in 1948 furthered the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant that the White Castle hamburger chain had already put into practice more than two decades earlier. The original mascot of McDonald's was a man with a chef's hat on top of a hamburger shaped head whose name was "Speedee". Speedee was eventually replaced with Ronald McDonald by 1967 when the company first filed a U.S. trademark on a clown shaped man having puffed out costume legs.

McDonald's first filed for a U.S. trademark on the name "McDonald's" on May 4, 1961, with the description "Drive-In Restaurant Services", which continues to be renewed through the end of December 2009. In the same year, on September 13, 1961, the company filed a logo trademark on an overlapping, double arched "M" symbol. The overlapping double arched "M" symbol logo was temporarily disfavored by September 6, 1962, when a trademark was filed for a single arch, shaped over many of the early McDonald's restaurants in the early years. Although the "Golden Arches" appeared in various forms, the present form as a letter "M" did not appear until November 18, 1968, when the company applied for a U.S. trademark. The present corporation dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois, on April 15, 1955, the ninth McDonald's restaurant overall. Kroc later purchased the McDonald brothers' equity in the company and led its worldwide expansion, and the company became listed on the public stock markets in 1965. Kroc was also noted for aggressive business practices, compelling the McDonald brothers to leave the fast food industry. The McDonald brothers and Kroc feuded over control of the business, as documented in both Kroc's autobiography and in the McDonald brothers' autobiography. The San Bernardino store was demolished in 1976 (or 1971, according to Juan Pollo) and the site was sold to the Juan Pollo restaurant chain. It now serves as headquarters for the Juan Pollo chain, as well as a McDonald's and Route 66 museum.^[9]

With the expansion of McDonald's into many international markets, the company has become a symbol of globalization and the spread of the American way of life. Its prominence has also made it a frequent topic of public debates about obesity, corporate ethics and consumer responsibility.

References

1. ^ McDonald's publication. "Corporate FAQ". McDonald's Corporation. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} "2010 Form 10-K, McDonald's Corporation". United States Securities and Exchange Commission. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
3. ^ McDonald Corporation. "Corporate Info".
4. ^ ^{a b} "McDonald's Momentum Delivers Another Year of Strong Results for 2011". Yahoo Finance. 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-25.^{[dead link]}
5. ^ . BurgerBusiness. 2012-01-25 http://www.burgerbusiness.com/?p=9168. Missing or empty |title= (help)^{[dead link]}
6. ^ "McDonald's History". Aboutmcdonalds.com. Retrieved 2011-07-23.
7. ^ "MCD 10-K 2007, Item 6, pg. 9".^{[dead link]}
8. ^ Stephen Evans (20 April 2004). "McDonald's: The journey to health". BBC News. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
9. ^ "McDonalds Museum". Juan Pollo. Retrieved 2012-05-14.

Taken from:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald%27s [15.05.2013]
Some pictures from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2213917/Retro-photos-McDonalds-quaint-burger-joint-glory-days-booming-global-franchise.html & http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/newsroom/image_and_video_library/historical.html

This Day in History: May 14, 1796: Edward Jenner administers the first smallpox vaccination

 

Edward Anthony Jenner, FRS (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist from Berkeley, Gloucestershire, who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine.^[1] He is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have "saved more lives than the work of any other man".^[2][3][4]

 

Edward Jenner was born on 17 May 1749^[5] (6 May Old Style) in Berkeley, as the eighth of nine children. His father, the Reverend Stephen Jenner, was the vicar of Berkeley, so Jenner received a strong basic education.^[6]

Edward Jenner went to school in Wotton-under-Edge and Cirencester.^[7] During this time he was inoculated for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health.^[7] At the age of 14 he was apprenticed for seven years to Mr Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, where he gained most of the experience needed to become a surgeon himself.^[7]

In 1770, Edward Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's Hospital.^[8] William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, very famous in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), "Don't think; try."^[9] Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a successful family doctor and surgeon, practicing on dedicated premises at Berkeley.

Jenner and others formed the Fleece Medical Society or Gloucestershire Medical Society, so called because it met in the parlor of the Fleece Inn, Rodborough, in Rodborough, Gloucestershire, meeting to dine together and read papers on medical subjects. Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia, and cardiac valvular disease and commented on cowpox. He also belonged to a similar society that met in Alveston, near Bristol.^[10]

 Jenner was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following his publication of a careful study of the previously misunderstood life of the nested cuckoo that combined observation, experiment, and dissection.

His description of the newly hatched cuckoo, pushing its host's eggs and fledgling chicks out of the nest (contrary to existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it) was only confirmed in the 20th century,^[11] when photography became available. Having observed this behaviour, Jenner demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it—the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back, not present after 12 days of life, that enables it to cup eggs and other chicks. The adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task. Jenner's findings were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1788.^[12][13]
"The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back from the scapula downwards is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodgement to the egg of the Hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young Cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest. When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general." (Letter to Hunter at the Royal Society, as above)
Jenner's nephew assisted in the study.

 

 Jenner married Catherine Kingscote (died 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788 after meeting her while he and other Fellows were experimenting with balloons. Jenner's trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, Gloucestershire, owned by Anthony Kingscote, one of whose daughters was Catherine.
Jenner earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792.

 

Jenner is also credited with advancing understanding of angina pectoris.^[14] In his correspondence with Heberden, he wrote, "How much the heart must suffer from the coronary arteries not being able to perform their functions."

 

Inoculation was already a standard practice, but involved serious risks. In 1721, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had imported variolation to Britain after having observed it in Istanbul, where her husband was the British ambassador. Voltaire, writing of this, estimates that at this time 60% of the population caught smallpox and 20% of the population died of it.^[15] Voltaire also states that the Circassians used the inoculation from times immemorial, and the custom may have been borrowed by the Turks from the Circassians.^[16]
In 1765, Dr John Fewster published a paper in the London Medical Society entitled "Cow pox and its ability to prevent smallpox", but he did not pursue the subject further.^[17]

 

In the years following 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested a cowpox vaccine in humans against smallpox.^[18] For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty^[19] successfully vaccinated and presumably induced immunity with cowpox in his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work some 20 years later that the procedure became widely understood. Indeed, Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success.^[20]

Noting the common observation that milkmaids were generally immune to smallpox, Jenner postulated that the pus in the blisters that milkmaids received from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox. He may already have heard of Benjamin Jesty's success.
On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy who was the son of Jenner's gardener. He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom,^[21] whose hide now hangs on the wall of the St George's medical school library (now in Tooting). Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenner's first paper^[22] on vaccination. Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a fever and some uneasiness, but no full-blown infection. Later, he injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time. No disease followed. The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection.



Donald Hopkins has written, "Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved [by subsequent challenges] that they were immune to smallpox. Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle.^[23] Jenner successfully tested his hypothesis on 23 additional subjects.

Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, which did not publish the initial paper. After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases. Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment, cautious then as now, deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolation – the use of smallpox – and provided vaccination – using cowpox – free of charge. (See Vaccination acts). The success of his discovery soon spread around Europe and, for example, was used en masse in the Spanish Balmis Expedition,^[24] a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao, China, and Saint Helena Island led by Dr. Francisco Javier de Balmis with the aim of giving thousands the smallpox vaccine. The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote, "I don’t imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this."

Jenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented him continuing his ordinary medical practice. He was supported by his colleagues and the King in petitioning Parliament, and was granted £10,000 for his work on vaccination. In 1806, he was granted another £20,000 for his continuing work in microbiology.
In 1803 in London, he became involved with the Jennerian Institution, a society concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. In 1808, with government aid, this society became the National Vaccine Establishment. Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its founding in 1805 and presented a number of papers there. The society is now the Royal Society of Medicine. In 1806, Jenner was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

 

Returning to London in 1811, Jenner observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by previous vaccination. In 1821, he was appointed Physician Extraordinary to King George IV, a great national honour, and was also made Mayor of Berkeley and Justice of the Peace. He continued to investigate natural history, and in 1823, the last year of his life, he presented his "Observations on the Migration of Birds" to the Royal Society.
Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed. He never fully recovered and eventually died of an apparent stroke, his second, on 26 January 1823, aged 73. He was survived by one son and one daughter, his elder son having died of tuberculosis at the age of 21.

 Legacy

In 1979, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease.^[25] This was the result of coordinated public health efforts by many people, but vaccination was an essential component. And although the disease was declared eradicated, some pus samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States and State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia. Jenner's vaccine also laid the foundation for contemporary discoveries in immunology, and the field he began may someday lead to cures for arthritis, AIDS, and many other diseases.^[26]


An illustrated history of smallpox eradication, Smallpox Zero,^[27] was published with the support of Sanofi Pasteur and distributed on May 17, 2010, in Geneva during an event sponsored by the World Health Organization.^[28][29] Smallpox Zero includes President Thomas Jefferson's letter of congratulations to Edward Jenner.

In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.^[30]

References

1. ^ Stefan Riedel, MD, PhD (2005 January). Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination 18 (1). Baylor University Medical Center. pp. 21–25. PMC 1200696. PMID 16200144.
2. ^ "Edward Jenner - (1749–1823)". Sundaytimes.lk. 1 June 2008. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
3. ^ "History - Edward Jenner (1749 - 1823)". BBC. 1 November 2006. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
4. ^ "Edward Jenner - Smallpox and the Discovery of Vaccination". Retrieved 28 July 2009.
5. ^ The Jenner Institute
6. ^ "About Edward Jenner". The Jenner Institute. Retrieved February 25, 2012.
7. ^ ^{a b c} "About Edward Jenner". The Jenner Institute. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
8. ^ "Young Edward Jenner, Born in Berkeley". Edward Jenner Museum. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
9. ^ Loncarek K (April 2009). "Revolution or reformation". Croatian Medical Journal 50 (2): 195–7. doi:10.3325/cmj.2009.50.195. PMC 2681061. PMID 19399955.
10. ^ Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised at http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&inst_id=8
11. ^ http://www.jennermuseum.com/ej/cuckoo.shtml^{[dead link]}
12. ^ Observations on the Natural History of the Cuckoo. By Mr. Edward Jenner. In a Letter to John Hunter, Esq. F. R. S Jenner, E Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886). 1788-01-01. 78:219–237 (Text at http://www.archive.org/details/philtrans06624558 )
13. ^ Cuckoo chicks evicting their nest mates: coincidental observations by Edward Jenner in England and Antoine Joseph Lottinger in France Spencer G. Sealy and Mélanie F. Guigueno Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada (e-mail: sgsealy@cc.umanitoba.ca). Citation Information. Archives of natural history. Volume 38, Page 220-228 DOI 10.3366/anh.2011.0030, ISSN 0260-9541, Available Online October 2011
14. ^ J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2011; 41:361–5doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2011.416
15. ^ François Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1778). "Letters on the English or Lettres Philosophiques".
16. ^ "Voltaire on Circassian Medicine: Inoculation". Circassian World. from Voltaire (1733). The Works of Voltaire. Vol. XIX (Philosophical Letters).
17. ^ Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-35168-1.
18. ^ Plett PC (2006). "Peter Plett and other discoverers of cowpox vaccination before Edward Jenner" [Peter Plett and other discoverers of cowpox vaccination before Edward Jenner]. Sudhoffs Archiv (in German) 90 (2): 219–32. PMID 17338405.
19. ^ Hammarsten J. F. et al. (1979). "Who discovered smallpox vaccination? Edward Jenner or Benjamin Jesty?". Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 90: 44–55. PMC 2279376. PMID 390826.
20. ^ Grant, John (2007). Corrupted Science: Fraud, Ideology and Politics in Science. London: Facts, Figures & Fun. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-904332-73-2.
21. ^ "Edward Jenner & Smallpox". The Edward Jenner Museum. Retrieved 13 July 2009.^{[dead link]}
22. ^ An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, Edward Jenner retrieved 17 November 2012
23. ^ Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-226-35168-1. OCLC 49305765.
24. ^ Carlos Franco-Paredes, Lorena Lammoglia, and José Ignacio Santos-Preciado (2005). The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New World and Asia in the 19th Century 41 (9). Clinical Infectious Diseases. pp. 1285–1289. doi:10.1086/496930.
25. ^ World Health Organization (2001). "Smallpox".
26. ^ "Dr. Edward Jenner and the small pox vaccination". Essortment.com. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
27. ^ "Smallpox Zero". African Comic Production House, Johannesburg, South Africa. ISBN 978-0-620-43765-3.
28. ^ "Smallpox".
29. ^ Jonathan Roy (November 2010). Smallpox Zero: An Illustrated History of Smallpox and Its Eradication 16 (11). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. doi:10.3201/eid1611.101145.
30. ^ "100 great Britons - A complete list". Daily Mail. 21 August 2002. Retrieved 2 August 2012.

 ^{Taken from:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenner [14.05.2013]}